Montesquieu, "Spirit of the Laws"
All lazy nations are grave; for those who do not labor regard themselves as the sovereigns of those who do.
Index
Introduction
Virtue in a Republic - [the spring which sets republican government in motion]
A Virtuous Republican - [Actuated by the love of laws]
BOOK I
Civil Man v Savage Man & Dual Human Nature -[Man is liable every moment to forget himself
BOOK III
Virtue Sustains a Republic - [One spring more is necessary, namely, virtue]
A Republic Becomes Undone Without Law - [The undoing of a state is the suspension of the laws]
Fit for Freedom: Attempt to Restore Roman Liberty - [Liberty once lost is never regained; an example from the late Roman Republic]
When Virtue is Banished - [The power of a few, and the license of many]
Athens: How Virtue is the Real Strength of a People - [Athens dreaded Philip, not as the enemy of her liberty, but of her pleasures]
Structure of Government and Law v. Virtue - [The laws supply here the place of those virtues]
The Character of Courtiers that Surround the Government - [The wretched character of courtiers]
Honor is Incompatible with Despotism - [Honor has fixed rules, Despotism has no rules]
Fear is the Principle of Despotic Government - [There is no occasion for virtue]
Perspective: The Horror of Despotism can Evoke a Love for Republicanism - [The eye is refreshed by the prospect of fine meadows]
Despotic Government Requires Total Obedience to the State - [Here man is a creature that blindly submits to the absolute will of the sovereign]
BOOK IV
Education in a Despotic Government - [It’s only aim is to debase men’s minds and turn them into slaves]
Love Preserves a Republic - [To preserve it we must love it]
The Principal Aim of Education - [Parents set examples to inspire a love of the Republic in their children]
Adults are Responsible for the Character of the Youth - [It is not the young people that degenerate]
BOOK V
Virtue is the Love of the Republic - [It is a sensation, and not a consequence of acquired knowledge]
Republicanism Helps Against the Rich v Poor Dichotomy - [Laws have placed many in a middling station]
Republican Commerce - [The spirit of commerce is naturally attended with republican virtues]
The Preservation of Heritage and Traditions - [Steadily adhere to the ancient institutions]
Government as a Positive Good for Both People and Magistrates - [Good government leads to happiness]
An Idea of Despotic Power - [Despotic Government Maintains that Ends Justify Means]
Unintended Consequence of Removing Property Rights - [Will be prompted to use a thousand oppressive methods]
How Human Nature Demands Separation of Powers - [One would imagine human nature should perpetually rise up against despotism]
Why the Rule of Law Must be Superior to Individual Will - [Momentary will Produces in All a Sudden Manner of Willing]
BOOK VI
The Importance of the Individual - [In a republic, men are equal and the people are everything]
The Desire for Change Leading to Further Abuse - [Desirous of remedying an abuse]
BOOK VIII
The Corruption of Governments Generally Begins with that of the Principles - [Defining Principles Constitute Being]
Chamides’ Finds New Power In Becoming Poor - [I am no longer afraid of losing: but I hope to acquire]
Civilization Strips Men of Natural Equality; Good Laws Restores Equality -
[Recover it only by the protection of the laws]Paradox Between Security in Danger - [Greater security subjected those states to corruption]
Corruption of the Executive - [Greater Power in Conforming to Law than Overcoming Law]
Restoring Lost Principles Remedies a Corrupt Republic - [Every other correction is either useless or a new evil]
Famous Small Republic Theory - [The public good is sacrificed to a thousand private view]
BOOK IX
The Ruin of Small and Large Republics -[Foreign force or internal imperfection]
Confederated Republics Remedy the Ruin of Small and Large Republics - [Withstand an external force while preventing internal corruption]
How to Think About Remedying the Costs of Civilization - [By increasing real grandeur, do not diminish the relative]
BOOK XI
Trying to Define Liberty - [No word has made more varied impressions on the human mind.]
Liberty Defined - [Doing what the law permits]
Human Nature Necessitates Separation of Powers - [Constant experience shows that every man with power is apt to abuse it]
Political Liberty as a Feeling that Your Liberty Is Secure - [Political Liberty is s tranquility of mind]
Natural Human Tendency Against Constitutionalism - [This insight into human nature affects the operation of government]
Two Ways a State May be Altered - [Either by corruption or amendment]
BOOK XII
Religion Supports Constitutionalism - [Religious customs limit arbitrary sway]
BOOK XIII
The Purpose of Public Revenue - [To Fund the End of Government: the security of property]
Attitude Towards Taxes - [Attitude towards it is indicative of how we understand the purpose of government]
Wealth Fortifies the Spirit of a Citizenry - [Wealth excites labor and industry]
BOOK XIV
People’s Perception of Tyranny - [Actors v Laws Being Banished]
Problems of a Lazy Public Spirit - [Those who do not labor regard themselves the rulers of those who do]
BOOK XX
Peace is the Natural Effect of Trade - [A union founded on their mutual necessities]
Compare to Liberal View of Commerce Clause - [Commerce Defined]
Information Problem in a Centralized Government - [Julian’s price controls]
BOOK XXIV
Christianity is the Religion that Contributes Most to Good Government - [The Christian religion is a stranger to mere despotic power]
Religion Restrains the Inconveniences and Passions of Human Nature - [Even a false religion is the best security we have over the probity of men]
Praise of the Stoics - [Among the misfortunes that have befallen the human race]
Religion Can be a Supporting Institution of Civilizations - [Supports the State when the laws are incapable]
Religion Provides Moral Stability to Society - [It is necessary to the society that it should have something fixed]
Introduction
Virtue in a Republic
[the spring which sets republican government in motion]
“...what I distinguish by name of virtue, in a republic, is the love of one’s country, that is, the love of equality. It is not a moral, nor a Christian, but a political virtue; and it is the spring which sets the republican government in motion.” (26)
A Virtuous Republican
[Actuated by the love of laws]
“He is the man who lives the laws of his country, and who is actuated by the love of those laws.” (27)
BOOK I
Civil Man v Savage Man & Dual Human Nature
[Man is liable every moment to forget himself]
“Brutes are deprived of the high advantages which we have; but they have some which we have not. They have not our hopes, but they are without our fears; they are subject like us to death, but without knowing it; even most of them are more attentive than we to self-preservation, and do not make so bad a use of their passions.
Man, as a physical being, is like other bodies governed by invariable laws. As an intelligent being, he incessantly transgresses the laws established by God, and changes those of his own instituting. He is left to his private direction, though a limited being, and subject, like all finite intelligences, to ignorance and error: even his imperfect knowledge he loses; and as a sensible creature, he is hurried away by a thousand impetuous passions.
Such a being might every instant forget his Creator; God has therefore reminded him of his duty by the laws of religion. Such a being is liable every moment to forget himself ; philosophy has provided against this by the laws of morality. Formed to live in society he might forget his fellow-creatures; legislators have therefore by political and civil law confined him to his duty.” (28)
BOOK III
Virtue Sustains a Republic
[One spring more is necessary, namely, virtue]
“There is no great share of probity necessary to support a monarchical or despotic government. The force of laws in one, and the prince’s arm in the other, are sufficient to direct and maintain the whole. But in a popular state, one spring more is necessary, namely, virtue.”
...For it is clear that in a monarchy where he who commands the execution of the laws generally thinks himself above them, there is less need of virtue than in a popular government, where the person entrusted with the execution of the laws is sensible of his being subject to their direction”. (40)
A Republic Becomes Undone Without Law
[The undoing of a state is the suspension of the laws]
“But when, in a popular government, there is a suspension of the laws, as this can proceed only from the corruption of the republic, the state is certainly undone. (41)
Fit for Freedom: Attempt to Restore Roman Liberty
[Liberty once lost is never regained; an example from the late Roman Republic]
“Sylla thought of restoring Rome to her liberty, this unhappy city was incapable of receiving that blessing. She had only the feeble remains of virtue, which were continually diminishing. Instead of being roused from her lethargy by Caesar, Tiberius, Caius Claudius, Nero, and Domitian, she riveted every day her chains; if she struck some blows, her aim was at they tyrant, not at the tyranny.” (41)
When Virtue is Banished
[The power of a few, and the license of many]
“When virtue is banished, ambition invades the minds of those who are disposed to receive it, and avarice possesses the whole community. The objects of their desires are changed; what they were fond of before has become indifferent; they were free while under the restraint of laws, but they would fain now be free to act against law...The members of the commonwealth riot on the public spoils, and its strength is only the power of a few, and the license of many.” (41)
Athens: How Virtue is the Real Strength of a People
[Athens dreaded Philip, not as the enemy of her liberty, but of her pleasures]
“Athens was possessed of the same number of forces when she triumphed so gloriously as when with such infamy she was enslaved. She had twenty thousand citizens when she defended the Greeks against the Persians, when she contended for empire with Sparta, and invaded Sicily. She had twenty thousand when Demetrius Phalereus numbered them as slaves beings sold in the market.
When Philip attempted to lord over Greece, and appeared at the gates of Athens she had even then lost nothing but time. We may see in Demosthenes how difficult it was to awaken her; she dreaded Philip, not as the enemy of her liberty, but of her pleasures.
This famous city, which had withstood so many defeats, and having been so often destroyed had as often risen out of her ashes, was overthrown at Chaeronea (Kay-roan-ia), and at one blow deprived of all hopes of recovery. What does it avail Athens that Philip sends back her soldiers, if he does not return her men? It was ever after as easy to triumph over the forces of Athens as it had been difficult to subdue her virtue.” (41)
Structure of Government and Law v. Virtue
[The laws supply here the place of those virtues]
“In monarchies, policy effects great things with as little virtue as possible…The state subsists independently of the love of our country, of the thirst of true glory, of self-denial, of the sacrifice of our dearest interests, and of all those heroic virtues which we admire in the ancients, and to us are known only by tradition. The laws supply here the place of those virtues…” (43)
The Character of Courtiers that Surround the Government
[The wretched character of courtiers]
“Ambition in idleness, meanness mixed with pride; a desire of riches without industry; aversion to truth; flattery, perfidy, violation of engagements, contempt of civil duties, fear of the prince’s virtue, hope from his weakness, but, above all, a perpetual ridicule cast upon virtue, are, I think, the characteristics by which most courtiers in all ages and countries have been constantly distinguished.” (43)
Honor is Incompatible with Despotism
[Honor has fixed rules, Despotism has no rules]
“How can honor, on the other hand, bear with despotism? The former has its fixed rules, and peculiar caprices; but the latter is directed by no rule, and its own caprices are subversive of all others.” (45)
Fear is the Principle of Despotic Government
[There is no occasion for virtue]
“As virtue is necessary in a republic, and in a monarchy honor, so fear is necessary in a despotic government: with regard to virtue, there is no occasion for it, and honor would be extremely dangerous.” (45)
Perspective: The Horror of Despotism can Evoke a Love for Republicanism
[The eye is refreshed by the prospect of fine meadows]
“History informs us that the horrid cruelties of Domitian struck such a terror into the governors that the people recovered themselves a little during his reign. Thus a torrent overflows one side of a country, and on the other leaves fields untouched, where the eye is refreshed by the prospect of fine meadows.” (46)
Despotic Government Requires Total Obedience to the State
[Here man is a creature that blindly submits to the absolute will of the sovereign]
“In despotic states, the nature of the government requires the most passive obedience, and when once the prince’s will is made known, it ought infallibly to produce its effect. Here they have no limitations or restrictions, no mediums, terms, equivalents, or remonstrances; no change to purpose: man is a creature that blindly submits to the absolute will of the sovereign.
In a country like this they are no more allowed to represent their apprehensions of a future danger than to impute their miscarriage to the capriciousness of fortune. Man’s portion here, like that of beasts, is instinct, compliance, and punishment.” (46)
BOOK IV
Education in a Despotic Government
[It’s only aim is to debase men’s minds and turn them into slaves]
“As education in monarchies tends to raise and ennoble the mind, in despotic governments its only aim is to debase it. Here it must necessarily be servile; even in power such an education will be an advantage, because every tyrant is at the same time a slave. Excessive obedience supposes ignorance in the person that obeys: the same it suppose in him that commands, for he has no occasion to deliberate, to doubt, to reason; he has only to will.” (49)
Love Preserves a Republic
[To preserve it we must love it]
“Now a government is like everything else: to preserve it we must love it. Has it ever been known that kings were not fond of monarchy, or that despotic princes hated arbitrary power?” (51)
The Principal Aim of Education
[Parents set examples to inspire a love of the Republic in their children]
“Everything therefore depends on establishing this love in a republic; and to inspire it ought to be the principal business of education: but the surest way of instilling it in children is for parents to set them an example.” (51)
Adults are Responsible for the Character of the Youth
[It is not the young people that degenerate]
“It is not the young people that degenerate; they are not spoiled till those of maturer age are already sunk into corruption.” (51)
BOOK V
Virtue is the Love of the Republic
[It is a sensation, and not a consequence of acquired knowledge]
“Virtue in a republic is a most simple thing: it is a love of the republic; it is a sensation, and not a consequence of acquired knowledge: a sensation that may be felt by the meanest as well as by the highest person in the state.” (56)
Republicanism Helps Against the Rich v Poor Dichotomy
[Laws have placed many in a middling station]
“The good sense and happiness of individuals depend greatly upon the mediocrity of their abilities and fortunes. Therefore, as a republic, where the laws have placed many in a middling station, is composed of wise men, it will be wisely governed; as it is composed of happy men, it will be extremely happy.” (56)
Republican Commerce
[The spirit of commerce is naturally attended with republican virtues]
“True it is that when a democracy is founded on commerce, private people may acquire vast riches without a corruption of morals. This is because the spirit of commerce is naturally attended with that of frugality, economy, moderation, labor, prudence, tranquility, order, and rule. So long as this spirit subsists, the riches it produces have no bad effect. The mischief is, when excessive wealth destroys the spirit of commerce, then it is that the inconveniences of inequality begin to be felt.” (60)
The Preservation of Heritage and Traditions
[Steadily adhere to the ancient institutions]
“Above all, the senate must steadily adhere to the ancient institutions, and mind that the people and the magistrates never swerve from them. The preservation of the ancient customs is a very considerable point in respect to manners.
Hence it is that ancient institutions generally tend to reform the people’s manners, and those of modern date to corrupt them. In the course of a long administration, the descent to vice is insensible; but there is no reascending to virtue without making the most generous efforts.” (61)
Government as a Positive Good for Both People and Magistrates
[Good government leads to happiness]
“As a people who live under a good government are happier than those who without rule or leaders wander about the forests, so monarchs who live under the fundamental laws of their country are far happier than despotic princes who have nothing to regulate neither their own passions nor those of their subjects.” (68)
An Idea of Despotic Power
[Despotic Government Maintains that Ends Justify Means]
“When the savages of Lewisiana are desirous of fruit, they cut the tree to the root, and gather the fruit. This is an emblem of despotic government.” (68)
Unintended Consequence of Removing Property Rights
[Will be prompted to use a thousand oppressive methods]
“Is it to be imagined that the laws which abolish the property of land and the succession of estates will diminish the avarice and cupidity of the great? By no means. They will rather stimulate this cupidity and avarice. The great men will be prompted to use a thousand oppressive methods, imagining they have no other property than the gold and silver which they are able to seize upon by violence, or to conceal.” (70)
How Human Nature Demands Separation of Powers
[One would imagine human nature should perpetually rise up against despotism]
“After what has been said, one would imagine that human nature should perpetually rise up against despotism. But notwithstanding the love of liberty, so natural to mankind notwithstanding their innate destination of force and violence, most nations are subject to this very government. This is easily accounted for.
To form a moderate government, it is necessary to combine the several powers; to regulate, temper, and set them in motion; to give, as it were, ballast to one, in order to enable it to counterpoise the other.
This is a masterpiece of legislation; rarely produced by hazard, and seldom attained by prudence. On the contrary, a despotic government offers itself, as it were, at first sight; it is uniform throughout.” (72)
Why the Rule of Law Must be Superior to Individual Will
[Momentary will Produces in All a Sudden Manner of Willing]
“Under moderate governments, the law is prudent in all its parts, and perfectly well known, so that even the pettiest magistrates are capable of following it. But in a despotic state, where the prince’s will is the law, though the prince were wise, yet how could the magistrate follow a will he does not know? He must certainly follow his own.
Again, as the law is only the prince’s will, and as the prince can only will what he knows, the consequence is that there are an infinite number of people who must will for him, and make their wills keep pace with his. In fine, as the law is the momentary will of the prince, it is necessary that those who will for him should follow his sudden manner of willing.” (74)
BOOK VI
The Importance of the Individual
[In a republic, men are equal and the people are everything]
“In republican governments, men are all equal; equal they are also in despotic governments: in the former, because they are everything; in the latter, because they are nothing.” (81)
The Desire for Change Leading to Further Abuse
[there remains an evil in the state that has sprung from this severity]
“It often happens that a legislator, desirous of remedying an abuse, thinks of nothing else; his eyes are open only to this object, and shut to its inconveniences. When the abuse is redressed, you see only the severity of the legislator; yet there remains an evil in the state that has sprung from this severity; the minds of the people are corrupted, and become habituated to despotism.” (88)
BOOK VIII
The Corruption of Governments Generally Begins with that of the Principles
[Defining Principles Constitute Being]
“The corruption of this government generally begins with that of the principles.” (108)
Chamides’ Finds New Power In Becoming Poor
[I am no longer afraid of losing: but I hope to acquire]
“‘Content I am,’ says Chamides, ‘because of my poverty. When I was rich, I was obliged to pay my court to informers, knowing I was more liable to be hurt by them than capable of doing them harm. The republic constantly demanded some new tac of me; and I could not decline paying. Since I have grown poor, I have acquired authority; nobody threatens me; I rather threaten others. I can go or stay where I please. The rich already rise from their seats and give me the way. I am a king, I was before a slave: I paid taxes to the republic, now it maintains me: I am no longer afraid of losing: but I hope to acquire.’” (108)
Civilization Strips Men of Natural Equality; Good Laws Restores Equality
[Recover it only by the protection of the laws]
“In the state of nature, indeed, all men are born equal, but they cannot continue in this equality. Society makes them lose it, and they recover it only by the protection of the laws.” (109)
Paradox Between Security in Danger
[Greater security subjected those states to corruption]
“A fear of the Persians supported the laws of Greece. Carthage and Rome were alarmed, and strengthened by each other. Strange, that the greater security those states enjoyed, the more, like stagnated waters, they were subject to corruption!” (111)
Corruption of the Executive
[Greater Power in Conforming to Law than Overcoming Law]
“Executive power is destroyed when a prince thinks he shows a greater exertion of power in changing than in conforming to the order of things.” (111)
Restoring Lost Principles Remedies a Corrupt Republic
[Every other correction is either useless or a new evil]
“When once a republic is corrupted, there is no possibility of remedying any of the growing evils, but by removing the corruption and restoring its lost principles; every other correction is either useless or a new evil.” (114)
Famous Small Republic Theory
[The public good is sacrificed to a thousand private view]
“It is natural for a republic to have only a small territory; otherwise it cannot long subsist. In an extensive republic there are men of large fortunes, and consequently of less moderation; there are trusts too considerable to be placed in any single subject; he has interests of his own; he soon begins to think that he may be happy and glorious, by oppressing his fellow-citizens; and that he may raise himself to grandeur on the ruins of his country.
In an extensive republic the public good is sacrificed to a thousand private views; it is subordinate to exceptions, and depends on accidents. In a small one, the interest of the public is more obvious, better understood, and more within the reach of every citizen; abuses have less extent, and of course are less protected. (116)
BOOK IX
The Ruin of Small and Large Republics
[Foreign force or internal imperfection]
“If a republic be small , it is destroyed by a foreign force; if it be large, it is ruined by an internal imperfection.” (121)
Confederated Republics Remedy the Ruin of Small and Large Republics
[Withstand an external force while preventing internal corruption]
“A republic of this kind [confederated] able to withstand an external force, may support itself without any internal corruption; the form of this society prevents all manner of inconveniences...As this government is composed of petty republics, it enjoys the internal happiness of each; and with regard to its external situation, by means of the association, it possesses all the advantages of large monarchies.”
How to Think About Remedying the Costs of Civilization
[By increasing real grandeur, do not diminish the relative]
“All grandeur, force, and power are relative. Care therefore must be taken that in endeavoring to increase the real grandeur, the relative be not diminished.”
BOOK XI
Trying to Define Liberty
[No word has made more varied impressions on the human mind]
“There is no word that admits more various significations, and has made more varied impressions on the human mind, that that of liberty. Some have taken it as a means of deposing a person of whom they had conferred a tyrannical authority; others for the power of choosing a superior whom they are obliged to obey; others for the right of bearing arms, and of being thereby enabled to use violence; others, in fine, for the privilege of being governed by a native of their own country, or by their own laws.” (136)
Liberty Defined
[Doing what the law permits]
“We must have continually present to our minds the difference between independence and liberty. Liberty is a right of doing whatever the laws permit, and if a citizen could do what they [laws] forbid he would be no longer possessed of liberty, because all his fellow-citizens would have the same power.” (136-137)
Human Nature Necessitates Separation of Powers
[Constant experience shows that every man with power is apt to abuse it]
“But constant experience shows us that every man invested with power is apt to abuse it, and to carry his authority as far as it will go...To prevent this abuse, it is necessary from the very nature of things that power should be a check to power. A government may be so constituted, as no man shall be compelled to do things to which the law does not oblige him, nor forced to abstain from things which the law permits.” (137)
Political Liberty as a Feeling that Your Liberty Is Secure
[Political Liberty is s tranquility of mind]
“The political liberty of the subject is a tranquility of mind arising from the opinion each person has of his safety. In order to have this liberty, it is requisite the government be so constituted as one man need not be afraid of another.” (138)
Natural Human Tendency Against Constitutionalism
[This insight into human nature affects the operation of government]
“It is natural for mankind to set a higher value upon courage than timidity, on activity than prudence, on strength than counsel.” (144)
Two Ways a State May be Altered
[Either by corruption or amendment]
“A state may alter in two different ways, either by the amendment or by the corruption of the constitution. If it has preserved its principles and the constitution changes, this is owing to its amendment; if upon changing the constitution its principles are lost, this is because it has been corrupted.” (149)
BOOK XII
Religion Supports Constitutionalism
[Religious customs limit arbitrary sway]
“It is proper there should be some sacred book to serve for a rule...The religious code supplies the civil and fixes the extent of arbitrary sway.” (177)
BOOK XIII
The Purpose of Public Revenue
[To Fund the End of Government: the security of property]
“The public revenues are a portion that each subject gives of his property, in order to secure or enjoy the remainder.” (179)
Attitude Towards Taxes
[Attitude towards it is indicative of how we understand the purpose of government]
Nothing requires more wisdom and prudence than the regulation of that portion of which the citizen is deprived, and that which he is suffered to retain. The public revenues should not be measured by the people’s abilities to give, but by what they ought to give. (179)
Wealth Fortifies the Spirit of a Citizenry
[Wealth excites labor and industry]
The effect of wealth in a country is to inspire every heart with ambition: that of poverty is to give birth to despair. The former is excited by labor, the latter is soothed by indolence. (179)
BOOK XIV
People’s Perception of Tyranny
[Actors v Laws Being Banished]
A people of this stamp [low and effeminate spirit] have a more lively sense of tyranny when a player is banished than when they are deprived of their laws. (242)
Problems of a Lazy Public Spirit
[Those who do not labor regard themselves the rulers of those who do]
All lazy nations are grave; for those who do not labor regard themselves as the sovereigns of those who do. (244)
BOOK XX
Peace is the Natural Effect of Trade
[A union founded on their mutual necessities]
Peace is the natural effect of trade. Two nations who traffic with each other become reciprocally dependent; for if one has an interest in buying, the other has an interest in selling: and thus their union is founded on their mutual necessities. (259)
Compare to Liberal View of Commerce Clause
[Commerce Defined]
Commerce is the exportation and importation of merchandise. (264)
Information Problem in a Centralized Government
[Julian’s price controls]
Thus the prince of the magistrate can no more ascertain the value of merchandise than he can establish by a decree than the relation 1 has to 10 is equal to that of 1 to 20. Julian’s lowering the price of provisions at Antioch was the cause of a most terrible famine. (306)
BOOK XXIV
Christianity is the Religion that Contributes Most to Good Government
[The Christian religion is a stranger to mere despotic power]
The Christian religion is a stranger to mere despotic power. The mildness so frequently recommended in the Gospel is incompatible with the despotic rage with which a prince punishes his subjects, and exercises himself in cruelty.
Let us set before our eyes, on the one hand, the continual massacres of the kings and generals of the Greeks and Romans, and, on the other, the destruction of people and cities by those famous conquerors Timur Beg and Jenghiz Khan, who ravaged Asia, and we shall see that we owe to Christianity, in government, a certain political law; and in war, a certain law of nations--benefits which human nature can never sufficiently acknowledge. (346)
Religion Restrains the Inconveniences and Passions of Human Nature
[Even a false religion is the best security we have over the probity of men]
In a country so unfortunate as to have a religion that God has not revealed, it is necessary for it to be agreeable to morality; because even a false religion is the best security we can have over the probity of men. (348)
Praise of the Stoics
[Among the misfortunes that have befallen the human race]
The several sects of philosophy among the ancients were a species of religion. Never were any principles more worthy of human nature, and more proper to form the good man, than those of the Stoics; and if I could for a moment cease to think that I am a Christian, I should not be able to hinder myself from ranking the destruction of the sect of Zeno among the misfortunes that have befallen the human race. (348)
Religion Has a Supporting Effect on Civilizations
[Supports the State when the laws are incapable]
Religion may support a state when the laws themselves are incapable of doing it. (352)
Religion Provides Moral Stability to Society
[It is necessary to the society that it should have something fixed]
It is however, necessary to the society that it should have something fixed; and it is religion that has this stability. (369)